A) Incorrect. While exposure to secondhand smoke is a risk factor, it is not the primary cause of lung cancer.

B) Incorrect. Genetics can play a role, but it is not the most significant factor in the development of lung cancer.

C) Incorrect. Avoiding tobacco smoke is important, but other factors can also contribute to the risk of lung cancer.

D) Correct. Smoking is the leading cause of lung cancer, but exposure to radon and occupational carcinogens is also significant in the development of the disease.

A) Incorrect. There are multiple types of lung cancer, not just one.

B) Correct. The two main types of lung cancer are non-small cell lung cancer and small cell lung cancer.

C) Incorrect. While lung cancer can occur in different parts of the lungs, it is primarily classified into non-small cell and small cell types.

D) Incorrect. Although these are common subtypes of non-small cell lung cancer, there are only two main categories: non-small cell and small cell.

A) While family history can be a risk factor, it is not the most strongly associated factor for lung cancer.

B) Correct. Exposure to asbestos is a significant risk factor for lung cancer, particularly in occupational settings.

C) Occasional exposure to secondhand smoke can contribute to the risk, but it is not the most strongly associated factor.

D) Consumption of high-fat foods is not a primary risk factor for lung cancer.

A) Incorrect. While some symptoms of lung cancer can include coughing up blood and chest pain, they are not always obvious and may not occur in the early stages.

B) Correct. Early-stage lung cancer can be asymptomatic, but as it advances, symptoms like a persistent cough, shortness of breath, and chest pain may develop.

C) Weight loss can be a symptom, but it is not the most common or specific one associated with lung cancer.

D) Lung cancer primarily affects the lungs and respiratory system, and skin changes like new moles or rashes are not typical symptoms.

A) Mammography is a screening method for breast cancer, not lung cancer.

B) The PSA test is used to screen for prostate cancer, not lung cancer.

C) Colonoscopy is a screening method for colorectal cancer, not lung cancer.

D) Correct. Low-dose computed tomography (LDCT) scans are commonly recommended for individuals at high risk of lung cancer to detect the disease at an early stage when it may be more treatable.

A) Incorrect. While lifestyle factors like smoking are significant, genetic mutations can also play a role in lung cancer.

B) Correct. Mutations in certain genes, especially in non-smokers, can increase the risk of developing lung cancer.

C) Incorrect. Genetic mutations can be associated with various types of lung cancer, not just small cell lung cancer.

D) Incorrect. Lung cancer is influenced by both genetic mutations and environmental factors like smoking.

A) Incorrect. Metastasis involves the spread of malignant (cancerous) cells, not benign tumors.

B) Correct. Metastasis is the process by which cancer cells from the primary lung tumor can travel to other parts of the body and form secondary tumors.

C) Incorrect. Metastasis can occur at various stages of lung cancer, not just in advanced stages.

D) Incorrect. Metastasis is not the process of early cancer development but rather the spread of cancer cells.

A) Incorrect. SCLC is generally more aggressive and grows rapidly compared to NSCLC.

B) Correct. NSCLC is more common, and treatment outcomes are generally better when compared to SCLC.

C) Incorrect. NSCLC and SCLC have distinct characteristics and treatment approaches.

D) Incorrect. Both NSCLC and SCLC are associated with smoking, although SCLC is more strongly linked to smoking.

A) Incorrect. EGFR mutations can occur in both smokers and non-smokers with NSCLC.

B) Incorrect. EGFR mutations are primarily associated with NSCLC, not SCLC.

C) Correct. EGFR mutations are relevant to NSCLC and can influence treatment choices, including the use of targeted therapies.

D) Incorrect. EGFR mutations are relevant in NSCLC and can impact treatment decisions.

A) Incorrect. Angiogenesis is not related to the spread of cancer cells but rather to the blood vessel development around tumors.

B) Correct. Angiogenesis is the process by which tumors stimulate the growth of new blood vessels to provide nutrients and oxygen, supporting tumor growth.

C) Incorrect. Angiogenesis is not a genetic mutation but a biological process.

D) Incorrect. Angiogenesis does not involve the surgical removal of tumors but rather the blood vessel development around them.

A) Incorrect. While a diet high in fruits and vegetables is beneficial for overall health, it is not a primary risk factor for lung cancer.

B) Correct. Occupational exposure to asbestos is a significant risk factor for lung cancer development.

C) Incorrect. While regular physical exercise is essential for health, it is not a primary risk factor for lung cancer.

D) Incorrect. Drinking alcohol in moderation may have health implications, but it is not a primary risk factor for lung cancer.

A) Incorrect. Smoking is strongly associated with the development of lung cancer.

B) Incorrect. Both heavy and light smokers are at an increased risk of developing lung cancer.

C) Correct. Smoking is the primary cause of lung cancer, accounting for the majority of cases.

D) Incorrect. Passive smoking or exposure to secondhand smoke can increase the risk of lung cancer in non-smokers.

A) Incorrect. Radon exposure is associated with an increased risk of lung cancer.

B) Incorrect. Radon exposure can be a risk factor in both urban and rural areas.

C) Correct. Radon is a radioactive gas that can accumulate in homes and is a known risk factor for lung cancer.

D) Incorrect. Radon exposure can increase the risk of lung cancer in both smokers and non-smokers.

A) Incorrect. Family history can influence the risk of developing lung cancer.

B) Incorrect. While lung cancer is not purely hereditary, family history can still play a role.

C) Correct. A family history of lung cancer, particularly in first-degree relatives, can increase the individual's risk.

D) Incorrect. A family history of lung cancer itself is relevant to lung cancer risk.

A) Incorrect. Air pollution, especially fine particulate matter, can increase lung cancer risk.

B) Incorrect. While smoking is a major risk factor, air pollution remains a significant contributor to lung cancer risk.

C) Correct. Exposure to air pollution, including fine particulate matter, is associated with an increased risk of lung cancer.

D) Incorrect. Air pollution is linked to lung cancer risk, not primarily to skin cancer.

A) Incorrect. Lung cancers are primarily categorized as malignant, but the classification is based on the type of malignant cells.

B) Correct. The main types of lung cancer are adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and small cell lung cancer.

C) Incorrect. The classification mentioned includes some types of lung cancer, but it is not comprehensive.

D) Incorrect. While staging is crucial, lung cancers are classified based on their histological type.

A) Incorrect. Adenocarcinoma is not necessarily linked to smoking, and it is not the most aggressive type of lung cancer.

B) Correct. Adenocarcinoma is the most common type of lung cancer and often originates from the cells lining the airways.

C) Incorrect. Adenocarcinoma primarily affects the outer parts of the lungs and can have various symptoms.

D) Incorrect. Adenocarcinoma may have different growth rates, and treatment effectiveness depends on multiple factors.

A) Incorrect. Small cell lung cancer is known for its rapid growth and is generally harder to cure.

B) Incorrect. Small cell lung cancer is considered aggressive due to its rapid proliferation.

C) Correct. Small cell lung cancer is characterized by rapidly growing cancer cells and is strongly associated with smoking.

D) Incorrect. Small cell lung cancer has a high tendency to spread to other parts of the body.

A) Incorrect. Squamous cell carcinoma is not the rarest type of lung cancer.

B) Correct. Squamous cell carcinoma often originates in the central airways of the lungs.

C) Incorrect. Squamous cell carcinoma is commonly associated with smoking.

D) Incorrect. Squamous cell carcinoma is not linked to the formation of fluid-filled sacs in the lungs.

A) Incorrect. Large cell carcinoma is not typically slow-growing and does not have the best prognosis.

B) Incorrect. Large cell carcinoma is a distinct type of lung cancer and not a subtype of adenocarcinoma.

C) Correct. Large cell carcinoma is a non-small cell lung cancer known for its aggressive and rapid growth.

D) Incorrect. Large cell carcinoma can metastasize to other parts of the body.

A) Incorrect. Fever and chills are not typical symptoms of lung cancer.

B) Incorrect. Weight gain is not commonly associated with lung cancer.

C) Correct. Loss of appetite and unexplained weight loss are common symptoms of lung cancer, often due to the metabolic changes caused by the cancer.

D) Incorrect. Skin rash is not a typical symptom of lung cancer.

A) Incorrect. While lung infections can cause various respiratory symptoms, they are not typically associated with hoarseness and difficulty swallowing.

B) Incorrect. Bronchitis primarily affects the airways and does not directly lead to hoarseness and difficulty swallowing.

C) Correct. Tumor compression of the esophagus can result in hoarseness and difficulty swallowing due to the physical obstruction.

D) Incorrect. Allergic reactions to medication may cause various symptoms but are not typically associated with these specific symptoms.

A) Incorrect. Chest pain in lung cancer is often related to the disease itself and its effects on nearby tissues.

B) Incorrect. Chest pain in lung cancer is not typically due to an allergic reaction to chemotherapy.

C) Correct. As lung cancer advances, it can invade nearby structures, leading to chest pain.

D) Incorrect. While radiation therapy can have side effects, chest pain is not a normal side effect of radiation for lung cancer.

A) Incorrect. Dysphagia refers to difficulty swallowing, not coughing up blood-tinged sputum.

B) Correct. Hemoptysis is the medical term for coughing up blood or blood-tinged sputum, which can occur in lung cancer.

C) Incorrect. Orthopnea is the inability to breathe comfortably while lying flat and is not related to coughing up blood.

D) Incorrect. Tachypnea is rapid breathing and is not related to coughing up blood.

A) Incorrect. Arthritis may cause joint pain but is not typically associated with worsening bone pain in the context of lung cancer.

B) Incorrect. Muscular strain can cause localized pain but does not explain worsening bone pain.

C) Correct. Bone metastases occur when cancer spreads to the bones, leading to bone pain and increased risk of fractures.

D) Incorrect. Peripheral neuropathy is characterized by nerve-related symptoms and is not a typical cause of bone pain associated with lung cancer.

A) Incorrect. An electrocardiogram (ECG) is used to assess heart function and electrical activity, not to visualize the lungs.

B) Correct. A CT scan is commonly used to visualize the lungs and identify suspicious masses or nodules, making it an important diagnostic tool for lung cancer.

C) Incorrect. Urinalysis is a test of urine composition and is not used to diagnose lung cancer.

D) Incorrect. Colonoscopy is a procedure used to examine the colon and rectum, not the lungs.

A) Incorrect. A bone marrow biopsy is not used to diagnose lung cancer.

B) Incorrect. Fine-needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy typically involves the removal of cells from a suspicious mass or nodule, not lung tissue.

C) Correct. Bronchoscopy involves the insertion of a thin, flexible tube into the airways to visualize and obtain a tissue sample from the lungs.

D) Incorrect. An excisional biopsy involves the removal of an entire mass or lesion, and it is not typically used for lung cancer diagnosis.

A) Incorrect. Mammography is a breast cancer screening test, not a lung cancer screening test.

B) Incorrect. A Pap smear is used to detect cervical cancer, not lung cancer.

C) Correct. Lung cancer screening with low-dose computed tomography (LDCT) is a screening test recommended for high-risk individuals, such as current or former smokers, to detect lung cancer at an early, more treatable stage.

D) Incorrect. The prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test is used to screen for prostate cancer, not lung cancer.

A) Incorrect. A PET scan does not assess blood pressure.

B) Incorrect. Bone density is not the primary focus of a PET scan.

C) Correct. A PET scan primarily assesses cellular metabolism and activity, which can help identify areas of increased metabolic activity, often seen in cancer cells.

D) Incorrect. While lung function is important in lung cancer, a PET scan does not directly assess lung function.

A) Incorrect. Fasting for 24 hours before a bronchoscopy is not typically required. However, the client may be asked to avoid food and liquids for a specific period before the procedure.

B) Incorrect. Removal of all jewelry and clothing is not a standard requirement for a bronchoscopy.

C) Incorrect. While a consent form may be required, it is not specifically related to anesthesia for a bronchoscopy.

D) Correct. NPO (nothing by mouth) status for a specified period before the procedure is typically necessary to reduce the risk of aspiration during the bronchoscopy.

A) Incorrect. Chemotherapy is typically used for advanced stages of NSCLC or as adjuvant therapy after surgery.

B) Incorrect. Radiation therapy may be used as a primary treatment for NSCLC or in combination with other modalities, but it is not the primary treatment for early-stage disease.

C) Incorrect. Targeted therapy is often used for specific genetic mutations in NSCLC, but it is not the primary treatment for early-stage disease.

D) Correct. Surgical resection involves the removal of the tumor and surrounding tissue and is a common treatment for early-stage NSCLC.

A) Correct. Cisplatin and vinorelbine are commonly used as a first-line chemotherapy regimen for SCLC.

B) Incorrect. Erlotinib is a targeted therapy primarily used for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

C) Incorrect. Pembrolizumab is an immunotherapy drug used in the treatment of NSCLC, particularly in cases with specific genetic mutations.

D) Incorrect. Bevacizumab is a targeted therapy used in combination with chemotherapy for certain cases of NSCLC, but it is not typically used in SCLC.

A) Incorrect. Palliative care is not focused on curing cancer but on managing symptoms and improving the patient's overall well-being.

B) Incorrect. While palliative care may extend a patient's life by managing symptoms and side effects, its primary goal is to enhance the quality of life rather than focusing solely on life expectancy.

C) Correct. The primary goal of palliative care is to provide relief from symptoms, alleviate suffering, and enhance the overall quality of life for individuals with serious illnesses, such as advanced lung cancer.

D) Incorrect. Palliative care is a complementary approach to cancer treatment and does not replace other forms of treatment but works alongside them.

A) Incorrect. While physical activity can help combat fatigue in some cases, it may not be advisable during radiation therapy. Rest and moderate activity are often recommended.

B) Correct. Applying lotion to the treatment area can help soothe skin changes and alleviate discomfort caused by radiation therapy.

C) Incorrect. Using a heating pad on the treatment area can exacerbate skin irritation and is not recommended during radiation therapy.

D) Incorrect. It is important for clients to stay hydrated during cancer treatment. Avoiding fluids is not advisable.

A) Incorrect. While tobacco smoke exposure is a risk factor for lung cancer, it is not a direct cause of pneumonitis.

B) Incorrect. Viral infections can cause respiratory symptoms, but pneumonitis typically results from factors such as radiation therapy or certain medications.

C) Correct. Radiation therapy to the lung is a known cause of pneumonitis, which is inflammation of the lung tissue.

D) Incorrect. Chemotherapy-induced hair loss is a side effect of chemotherapy but is not related to pneumonitis.

A) Incorrect. Open communication with friends and family is important for emotional support and should not be avoided.

B) Correct. Support groups provide a safe space for individuals with cancer to share their experiences, express their feelings, and receive support from others facing similar challenges.

C) Incorrect. While staying engaged in activities can be helpful, distraction alone may not effectively address anxiety and fear related to a cancer diagnosis.

D) Incorrect. Ignoring physical symptoms is not advisable, as early symptom recognition and management are important in cancer care.

A) Incorrect. Radiation therapy side effects can vary in severity and may not always be immediate or severe.

B) Incorrect. While radiation therapy is targeted to the tumor site, it can affect surrounding tissues and organs.

C) Incorrect. Radiation therapy can be used in combination with chemotherapy, depending on the treatment plan.

D) Correct. Radiation therapy can cause both immediate side effects (such as fatigue and skin changes) and delayed side effects (such as lung inflammation).

A) Incorrect. A lobectomy typically involves the removal of a portion of the lung (a lobe) rather than the entire lung.

B) Correct. A lobectomy removes the affected lobe of the lung while preserving the remaining lung tissue and function.

C) Incorrect. Removing lymph nodes in the chest is not the primary purpose of a lobectomy.

D) Incorrect. A lobectomy is a therapeutic procedure, not a diagnostic one.

A) Incorrect. The chest tube should only be removed by a healthcare provider, and drainage cessation is not the sole indicator for removal.

B) Incorrect. Encouraging deep breathing and coughing exercises is essential to prevent complications such as pneumonia.

C) Correct. Monitoring and reporting changes in drainage or signs of infection are critical for early detection of complications.

D) Incorrect. It is not advisable to shower with the chest tube in place, as moisture can affect the integrity of the dressing and tubing connections.

A) Incorrect. The chest tube should only be removed by a healthcare provider, and drainage cessation is not the sole indicator for removal.

B) Incorrect. Encouraging deep breathing and coughing exercises is essential to prevent complications such as pneumonia.

C) Correct. Monitoring and reporting changes in drainage or signs of infection are critical for early detection of complications.

D) Incorrect. It is not advisable to shower with the chest tube in place, as moisture can affect the integrity of the dressing and tubing connections.