Choice A reason:

A benign neoplasm grows slowly and remains localized within its site of origin. It does not spread to other parts of the body or cause systemic effects.

Choice B reason:

A malignant neoplasm invades surrounding tissues and organs and destroys their normal function. It can also penetrate blood vessels or lymphatics and disseminate to distant sites, forming secondary tumors or metastases.

Choice C reason:

A benign neoplasm can differentiate into normal cells that resemble the tissue of origin. It has a well-defined shape and structure and retains some of its normal functions.

Choice D reason:

A malignant neoplasm can metastasize to distant sites via blood or lymph, creating new foci of tumor growth and increasing the complexity and severity of the disease.

Choice E reason:

A benign neoplasm can cause compression or obstruction of nearby structures, such as nerves, blood vessels, ducts, or organs. This can result in pain, ischemia, inflammation, or dysfunction of the affected structures.

Choice A reason:

The size and number of primary tumors are important criteria for staging cancer, as they indicate the local growth and expansion of the tumor within its site of origin. The larger and more numerous the tumors are, the higher the stage of cancer is.

Choice B reason:

The presence or absence of regional lymph node involvement is another important criterion for staging cancer, as it indicates the spread of the tumor to the nearby lymphatic system. The more lymph nodes are affected, the higher the stage of cancer is.

Choice C reason:

The presence or absence of distant metastases is the most important criterion for staging cancer, as it indicates the spread of the tumor to other parts of the body via blood or lymph. The presence of any distant metastasis usually indicates the highest stage of cancer.

Choice D reason:

The degree of cellular differentiation and resemblance to normal tissue is a criterion for grading cancer, not staging cancer. Grading cancer assesses the severity and aggressiveness of the tumor based on its histologic appearance and behavior.

Choice E reason:

The level of tumor markers in the blood or other body fluids is a criterion for monitoring cancer, not staging cancer. Tumor markers are substances produced by tumor cells or by the body in response to tumor cells that can be detected in laboratory tests. They can help diagnose, prognose, or evaluate the response to treatment of cancer.

Choice A reason:

Chemotherapy kills cancer cells by interfering with their DNA synthesis and replication. Chemotherapy drugs are cytotoxic agents that target rapidly dividing cells, such as cancer cells, and disrupt their cell cycle, DNA repair, or DNA replication mechanisms. This leads to cell death or apoptosis.

Choice B reason:

Radiation therapy kills cancer cells by exposing them to high-energy radiation that damages their DNA. Radiation therapy uses ionizing radiation, such as x-rays, gamma rays, or protons, that create free radicals that break DNA strands and cause mutations or chromosomal aberrations in cancer cells.

Choice C reason:

Immunotherapy kills cancer cells by stimulating the immune system to recognize and destroy them. Immunotherapy uses biological agents, such as monoclonal antibodies, cytokines, vaccines, or adoptive cell transfer, that enhance the immune response against cancer cells or overcome their immune evasion strategies.

Choice D reason:

Hormone therapy kills cancer cells by blocking their hormone receptors and preventing their growth. Hormone therapy uses drugs that either inhibit the production or action of hormones, such as estrogen or testosterone, that stimulate the growth of hormone-dependent cancers, such as breast or prostate cancer.

Choice D reason:

Metastatic manifestations are signs and symptoms of cancer that result from the spread of the tumor to distant organs or tissues. Lung cancer can metastasize to various sites, such as the brain, bone, liver, or adrenal glands, and cause organ-specific manifestations, such as dyspnea, cough, hemoptysis, and weight loss.

Choice A reason:

Local manifestations are signs and symptoms of cancer that result from the growth and expansion of the tumor within its site of origin. Lung cancer can cause local manifestations, such as chest pain, pleural effusion, or atelectasis.

Choice B reason:

Systemic manifestations are signs and symptoms of cancer that result from the effects of the tumor or its treatment on the whole body. Lung cancer can cause systemic manifestations, such as anorexia, cachexia, fatigue, or fever.

Choice C reason:

Paraneoplastic manifestations are signs and symptoms of cancer that result from the production of hormones or other substances by the tumor cells that affect normal body functions. Lung cancer can cause paraneoplastic manifestations, such as hypercalcemia, syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH), or Cushing's syndrome.

Choice B reason:

Dietary factors are important risk factors for colon cancer, as they can affect the composition and metabolism of the intestinal flora and the production of carcinogens or protective substances in the colon. Red meat, processed meat, and high-fat foods can increase the risk of colon cancer by increasing the production of heterocyclic amines, nitrosamines, or bile acids that can damage the colonic mucosa and promote tumor growth.

Choice A reason:

"You should have a colonoscopy every 10 years starting at age 50 to screen for colon cancer." This statement is not correct for a client who has a family history of colon cancer, as they have a higher risk of developing the disease than the general population. They should have a colonoscopy every 5 years starting at age 40 or 10 years earlier than the age at which their relative was diagnosed with colon cancer.

Choice C reason:

"You should take aspirin daily to prevent inflammation and polyp formation in your colon." This statement is not correct for a client who has a family history of colon cancer, as they may have other medical conditions or contraindications that make aspirin use unsafe or inappropriate for them. Aspirin is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that can reduce the risk of colon cancer by inhibiting cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) enzyme that stimulates inflammation and angiogenesis in the colon. However, aspirin can also cause side effects such as bleeding, ulcers, or allergic reactions in some clients.

Choice D reason:

"You should increase your intake of calcium and vitamin D to protect your colon from cancer." This statement is not correct for a client who has a family history of colon cancer, as there is insufficient evidence to support the role of calcium and vitamin D in preventing colon cancer. Calcium and vitamin D may have some protective effects on the colon by binding to bile acids or regulating cell proliferation and differentiation in the colonic mucosa. However, they may also have adverse effects on other organs or systems, such as increasing the risk of kidney stones or cardiovascular disease.