A) Incorrect. Pulmonary edema is not a bacterial lung infection.

B) Incorrect. Pleuritis (inflammation of the pleura) is a different condition unrelated to pulmonary edema.

C) Correct. Pulmonary edema is characterized by the accumulation of excess fluid in the lungs, often in the alveoli and interstitial spaces.

D) Incorrect. A blockage in the coronary arteries is related to myocardial infarction (heart attack) and is not the primary characteristic of pulmonary edema.

A) Correct. Pink, frothy sputum is often referred to as hemoptysis and is a common presentation in pulmonary edema.

B) Incorrect. Orthopnea refers to difficulty breathing when lying flat and is associated with heart failure but is not specifically related to pink, frothy sputum.

C) Incorrect. Paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea (PND) is another symptom of heart failure but does not involve the coughing up of pink, frothy sputum.

D) Incorrect. Crepitus is a term used to describe a crackling or popping sound and is not directly related to the sputum seen in pulmonary edema.

A) Incorrect. Routine physical activity does not typically precipitate the development of pulmonary edema.

B) Incorrect. Recent vaccination is not a common precipitating factor for pulmonary edema.

C) Correct. Severe hypertension can increase the workload of the heart, leading to left ventricular failure, which is a common precipitating event for pulmonary edema.

D) Incorrect. Controlled diabetes is not a precipitating factor for pulmonary edema; uncontrolled diabetes can have cardiovascular implications but is not directly related to this condition.

A) Incorrect. Increased lung compliance would not contribute to pulmonary edema; in fact, it might reduce the risk of fluid accumulation in the lungs.

B) Correct. Impaired alveolar fluid clearance, often due to altered pulmonary capillary permeability, is a key factor in the pathophysiology of pulmonary edema.

C) Incorrect. Constricted pulmonary blood vessels (vasoconstriction) would reduce blood flow to the lungs and are not a primary factor in pulmonary edema.

D) Incorrect. Enhanced left ventricular contractility, while beneficial for cardiac function, is not directly related to the development of pulmonary edema.

A) Correct. Increased hydrostatic pressure in pulmonary capillaries, often due to left ventricular failure, leads to the filtration of fluid from the capillaries into the alveoli and interstitial spaces, causing pulmonary edema.

B) Incorrect. Decreased capillary permeability is not typically a primary factor in the development of pulmonary edema.

C) Incorrect. Enhanced lymphatic drainage from the lungs is not a primary mechanism responsible for the accumulation of fluid in pulmonary edema.

D) Incorrect. Elevated colloid osmotic pressure in pulmonary vessels would oppose fluid accumulation in the alveoli and is not a primary cause of pulmonary edema.

A) Incorrect. Atrial contraction contributes to ventricular filling but is not typically the primary site of impairment in heart failure leading to pulmonary edema.

B) Incorrect. Ventricular relaxation (diastole) is necessary for ventricular filling, but the impaired contraction during systole is a more common issue in heart failure.

C) Correct. Impaired ventricular contraction (systole) in heart failure results in reduced forward flow of blood and leads to fluid backup in the lungs, contributing to pulmonary edema.

D) Incorrect. Electrical conduction in the heart may affect heart rhythm but is not directly related to the development of pulmonary edema.

A) Incorrect. The primary role of the lymphatic system in the lungs is not gas exchange but rather fluid removal.

B) Incorrect. While the lymphatic system plays a role in overall fluid balance, it is not primarily responsible for regulating blood pressure.

C) Correct. The lymphatic system helps remove excess interstitial fluid from the lungs, preventing fluid accumulation and contributing to fluid balance.

D) Incorrect. Surfactant production is primarily related to maintaining lung compliance and preventing alveolar collapse but is not a primary function of the lymphatic system.

A) Incorrect. Increased myocardial contractility would not typically lead to left ventricular remodeling but might improve cardiac function.

B) Incorrect. Reduced afterload on the heart may be beneficial, but it is not a primary factor in left ventricular remodeling.

C) Correct. Left ventricular remodeling, often occurring after a myocardial infarction, involves changes in the size and shape of the ventricle, which can impair cardiac function and lead to pulmonary edema.

D) Incorrect. Enhanced pulmonary vasodilation is not a primary cause of left ventricular remodeling or pulmonary edema.

A) Incorrect. Regular physical exercise is generally a healthy behavior and is not a risk factor for pulmonary edema.

B) Incorrect. Low blood pressure (hypotension) is not a risk factor for pulmonary edema; in fact, high blood pressure (hypertension) is a more common risk factor.

C) Incorrect. Adequate fluid intake is important for overall health but is not a direct risk factor for pulmonary edema.

D) Correct. Chronic kidney disease can lead to fluid and electrolyte imbalances, which can contribute to the development of pulmonary edema.

A) Correct. Atrial fibrillation is a cardiac arrhythmia that can lead to heart failure, which is a common etiological factor for pulmonary edema.

B) Incorrect. Hypothyroidism is not typically a direct cause of pulmonary edema.

C) Incorrect. While COPD can lead to respiratory-related symptoms, it is not a direct cause of pulmonary edema.

D) Incorrect. Rheumatoid arthritis is not a known cause of pulmonary edema.

A) Incorrect. Regular exercise is generally beneficial for heart health and would not increase the risk of pulmonary edema.

B) Incorrect. Smoking cessation is a positive health behavior and does not increase the risk of pulmonary edema.

C) Incorrect. Hypertension control is important for reducing the risk of heart-related complications and pulmonary edema.

D) Correct. Prior heart muscle damage, such as from a myocardial infarction (MI), increases the risk of heart failure and subsequently pulmonary edema.

A) Incorrect. Caffeine, when consumed in moderation, is not a known risk factor for pulmonary edema.

B) Correct. Excessive alcohol consumption can lead to heart-related issues, including alcoholic cardiomyopathy, which can increase the risk of pulmonary edema.

C) Incorrect. While nicotine is harmful to the cardiovascular system, it is not a direct cause of pulmonary edema.

D) Incorrect. While marijuana use can have various health effects, it is not a known direct risk factor for pulmonary edema.

A) Correct. Hypertension is a significant risk factor for the development of heart failure, which can lead to pulmonary edema.

B) Incorrect. Diabetes, while a chronic condition, is not a direct risk factor for pulmonary edema.

C) Incorrect. Hypercholesterolemia (high cholesterol) can contribute to atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease but is not a direct cause of pulmonary edema.

D) Incorrect. Osteoarthritis is a musculoskeletal condition and is not directly related to the development of pulmonary edema.

A) Incorrect. A persistent dry cough is not a typical symptom of acute pulmonary edema.

B) Incorrect. Productive cough with green sputum is more suggestive of a respiratory infection than acute pulmonary edema.

C) Correct. Sudden-onset severe shortness of breath, often described as "air hunger," is a hallmark symptom of acute pulmonary edema.

D) Incorrect. Sharp, stabbing chest pain is not a primary symptom of acute pulmonary edema but may be present in some cases.

A) Incorrect. A decreased respiratory rate is not typically associated with pulmonary edema, which often leads to increased respiratory effort.

B) Correct. Inspiratory crackles in the lung bases are indicative of fluid accumulation in the alveoli and are a common physical finding in pulmonary edema.

C) Incorrect. Increased breath sounds are not typically associated with pulmonary edema; instead, crackles or wheezing may be heard.

D) Incorrect. Diminished heart sounds are not a characteristic finding in pulmonary edema.

A) Incorrect. Nausea and vomiting are not typically associated with pulmonary edema.

B) Correct. Orthopnea, or difficulty breathing when lying flat, is a common symptom of pulmonary edema related to heart failure.

C) Incorrect. While sweating and diaphoresis can occur in response to respiratory distress, they are not specific to pulmonary edema.

D) Incorrect. Sharp, stabbing chest pain is not a common manifestation of pulmonary edema but may occur with other cardiac or respiratory conditions.

A) Correct. Pink, frothy sputum, often described as "pink froth," is indicative of severe pulmonary edema with the presence of blood-tinged fluid in the alveoli.

B) Incorrect. A low-grade fever is not a typical sign of pulmonary edema and may indicate another underlying condition.

C) Incorrect. Clear breath sounds throughout the lung fields are not indicative of severe pulmonary edema, which often presents with crackles.

D) Incorrect. The absence of peripheral edema does not necessarily reflect the severity of pulmonary edema; it may be related to factors other than heart failure.

A) Incorrect. Hyperventilation leading to respiratory alkalosis may occur in response to respiratory distress but is not the primary cause of the sensation of "suffocation."

B) Incorrect. Reduced cardiac output may be a consequence of pulmonary edema, but it does not typically result in bradycardia, nor is it the primary cause of the sensation described.

C) Correct. In pulmonary edema, fluid accumulation in the alveoli impairs oxygen diffusion, leading to hypoxemia, which contributes to the sensation of "suffocation."

D) Incorrect. Elevated blood pressure and hypertension can be associated with heart failure but are not the primary factors contributing to the sensation of "suffocation" in pulmonary edema.

A) Incorrect. While a complete blood count (CBC) may provide some information, it is not the primary diagnostic test for pulmonary edema.

B) Incorrect. An electrocardiogram (ECG) may be used to evaluate cardiac function but does not directly assess pulmonary edema.

C) Correct. A chest X-ray is a key diagnostic tool for assessing the presence, severity, and underlying causes of pulmonary edema by visualizing lung and heart structures.

D) Incorrect. Urinalysis is not a primary diagnostic test for pulmonary edema; it is used to assess kidney function and screen for urinary tract infections.

A) Correct. Serum creatinine levels can be elevated in cases of heart failure-related pulmonary edema, indicating impaired kidney function due to reduced cardiac output.

B) Incorrect. Blood glucose levels may be elevated in some individuals with diabetes but are not directly related to pulmonary edema.

C) Incorrect. Hemoglobin levels are not typically used to diagnose pulmonary edema; they are more related to oxygen-carrying capacity in the blood.

D) Incorrect. Serum potassium levels may be influenced by various factors but are not a primary indicator of pulmonary edema.

A) Correct. Pulmonary edema can lead to impaired gas exchange, resulting in respiratory acidosis, characterized by a decreased pH on ABG analysis.

B) Incorrect. Pulmonary edema typically leads to decreased oxygenation, so an elevated PaO2 would not be consistent with this condition.

C) Incorrect. A decreased PaCO2 is more commonly associated with respiratory alkalosis and is not a primary finding in pulmonary edema.

D) Incorrect. Increased bicarbonate (HCO3-) levels are more indicative of metabolic alkalosis and are not typically associated with pulmonary edema.

A) Incorrect. Oxygen saturation levels are typically assessed using pulse oximetry and are not provided by an echocardiogram.

B) Incorrect. Blood pressure measurements are not directly assessed through an echocardiogram.

C) Correct. An echocardiogram provides valuable information about the structure and function of the heart, which can help diagnose the underlying cause of pulmonary edema, such as heart failure.

D) Incorrect. A white blood cell count is not part of an echocardiogram and is not used to diagnose pulmonary edema.

A) Correct. A CT scan can help identify the presence of fluid in the alveoli and interstitial spaces of the lungs, making it a valuable tool in diagnosing pulmonary edema.

B) Incorrect. MRI is not typically used to diagnose pulmonary edema, as it may not provide as clear an image of lung tissue as a CT scan.

C) Incorrect. PET scans are more commonly used in oncology to detect metabolic activity and are not typically used for pulmonary edema diagnosis.

D) Incorrect. While ultrasound can be useful in assessing pleural effusions, it may not provide the same level of detail as a CT scan for diagnosing pulmonary edema.

A) Incorrect. Intravenous antibiotics may be necessary for certain pulmonary infections, but they do not address the immediate oxygenation needs in acute pulmonary edema.

B) Correct. Providing supplemental oxygen helps increase the client's oxygen levels, improving oxygenation in acute pulmonary edema.

C) Incorrect. While deep breathing exercises are beneficial for overall lung health, they may not be sufficient to address the immediate oxygenation issue in acute pulmonary edema.

D) Incorrect. Antipyretic medications are used to reduce fever and do not directly improve oxygenation in pulmonary edema.

A) Incorrect. Sudden onset of severe chest pain is not a typical finding in chronic pulmonary edema.

B) Incorrect. Profuse hemoptysis is not a common symptom of chronic pulmonary edema.

C) Correct. Bilateral pitting edema in the lower extremities is a common sign of fluid retention in chronic pulmonary edema.

D) Incorrect. While an increased heart rate may be present, palpitations are not a typical finding in chronic pulmonary edema.

A) Correct. Diuretics are commonly used in the management of pulmonary edema to reduce fluid volume, preload, and afterload on the heart.

B) Incorrect. Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections and are not typically used as a primary treatment for pulmonary edema.

C) Incorrect. Bronchodilators are used to relieve airway constriction and are not the primary treatment for pulmonary edema.

D) Incorrect. Anticoagulants are used to prevent blood clot formation and are not the primary treatment for pulmonary edema.

A) Incorrect. The supine position with legs elevated is not recommended for clients with pulmonary edema, as it can worsen fluid retention.

B) Correct. High Fowler's position allows for optimal lung expansion and improved gas exchange in clients with pulmonary edema.

C) Incorrect. The left lateral recumbent position may be used in some cases, but it is not the primary position for managing pulmonary edema.

D) Incorrect. The prone position is not typically recommended for clients with pulmonary edema.

A) Incorrect. Limiting fluid intake should be based on the client's specific medical recommendations and should not be a general guideline.

B) Incorrect. Avoiding all physical activity is not necessary and can lead to deconditioning. Clients should engage in appropriate physical activity as advised by their healthcare provider.

C) Incorrect. Blood pressure should be regularly monitored as directed by the healthcare provider, not only when symptoms worsen.

D) Correct. Taking prescribed medications as directed, especially diuretics and medications to manage underlying conditions, is crucial in preventing recurrence of pulmonary edema.

A) Correct. Skin temperature and color can provide important clues about tissue perfusion and oxygenation, which are critical in pulmonary edema.

B) Incorrect. While urinary output is important, it is not the primary focus when monitoring respiratory status in pulmonary edema.

C) Incorrect. Bowel sounds are unrelated to pulmonary edema and should not be the priority assessment.

D) Incorrect. Peripheral edema may be a sign of fluid retention, but skin color and temperature are more directly related to respiratory status.

A) Incorrect. Diuretics typically reduce blood pressure, so increased blood pressure is an unlikely side effect.

B) Incorrect. Hyperglycemia is not a common side effect of diuretics.

C) Correct. Diuretics can lead to the loss of potassium, resulting in hypokalemia.

D) Incorrect. Bradycardia is not typically associated with diuretic therapy.

A) Incorrect. Elevated body temperature is not a typical manifestation of pulmonary edema.

B) Incorrect. Bradycardia is not a common finding in pulmonary edema.

C) Correct. Crackles in the lung fields are a hallmark sign of pulmonary edema due to the accumulation of fluid in the alveoli.

D) Incorrect. Hypertension is not a typical finding in pulmonary edema; it is more commonly associated with conditions like heart failure.

A) Incorrect. A high-sodium diet is not recommended for clients with pulmonary edema, as it can exacerbate fluid retention.

B) Incorrect. Low-potassium diets are not typically recommended for clients with pulmonary edema, as potassium is important for heart and muscle function.

C) Correct. A low-sodium diet is essential to reduce fluid retention and manage pulmonary edema.

D) Incorrect. While adequate protein intake is important for overall health, it is not the primary dietary concern in pulmonary edema.

A) Incorrect. Urinary output is important but does not directly assess the client's oxygenation status.

B) Correct. Monitoring the respiratory rate and effort is essential to ensure the client is adequately oxygenated and not in respiratory distress.

C) Incorrect. Skin turgor is unrelated to oxygenation and pulmonary edema.

D) Incorrect. Bowel sounds do not provide information about the client's oxygenation status.